What Matt Knows About the Human Body (based on prior knowledge and way too much time spent watching scrubs)

As of right now, my knowledge on the human body is limited, and most of it is derived from random bits and pieces of info that have accumulated in my mind over the course of my life as well as a bits and pieces from watching the TV show, "Scrubs." First off, the human body is a system. It is an intricate piece of machinery that is made up of many smaller systems that must all work in tandem in order to run smoothly. When one metaphorical cog in the machine malfunctions, it can cause negative affects across the board. Some of these systems within the human body include the nervous (cue the puns), circulatory, digestive and respiratory systems, among others. The circulatory system is one's blood. Blood is critical in delivering oxygen and other nutrients to different areas of the body. Muscles, for instance, need oxygen to operate. Now where does the blood get this oxygen, the curious child asks, well let me tell you. The oxygen must come from outside of the body, and it gets inside via the respiratory system. The respiratory system revolves around the lungs. When one inhales, they breathe in oxygen, among other things, and this oxygen is then carried through the blood stream. This illustrates the intricate interconnectedness of the human body. Systems rely on systems, and if system doesn't fulfill its duty, the others suffer as a result. The human body is like a well oiled machine, and it needs to prevent malfunctioning. This is done by the immune system which strives to prevent disease or sickness from falling upon the body. Although I am aware that the human body is a metaphorical interdependent machine, I am not at all educated on the specifics of how exactly the systems work perfectly in tandem. In this next segment, I will simply list random facts about the body that I know, and I hope that charging headfirst at this unit, metaphorically of course, will help me understand how all of the different facets of the human body are able to perform together as one.

Random Facts:

1. There are four compartments of the heart
2. The thyroid is a butterfly shaped gland surrounding the larynx
3. A possibly malignant skin tumor can be differentiated from a benign mole by its appearance. Often, malignant moles will be darker in color and have indistinct borders.
4. The appendix is a non-essential organ and can be removed. This also applies to the gal bladder
5. Only one healthy kidney is needed to live
6. The liver has a lot of smooth endoplasmic reticulum
7. The small intestine is longer than the large intestine
8. Renal is a word that indicates association with the kidneys
9. The pituitary gland controls the thyroid gland
10. Blood travels through capillaries, arteries, and veins
11. Due to a process called peristalsis, the esophagus can move food towards the stomach even if the person is upside down
12. Heartburn has nothing to do with the heart
13. An air bubble to the jugular is lethal
14. When talking about blood, shock is an actual medical term that does not refer to a person being stunned mentally or emotionally
15. Most of the body is made up of water
16. One's wingspan is roughly equal in length to how tall the person is
17. I am nervous to learn about the nervous system. Zing!

I hope this post was satisfactory and if anybody feels the urge to comment, let me know who you think would win in a fight, Brock Lesnar or DinoCroc.

Taking a Minute to Reflect...............................

DISCLAIMER: A good chunk of the following information is based on the assumption that neither my siblings nor I am adopted.

This week, we have delved into the subject of Mendelian genetics. As part of this, we embarked on an experimental journey where we analyzed some of our own genetic traits as well as those of our parents and siblings. The traits that we evaluated included the ability to roll one's tongue, the presence or absence of a widow's peak, hitchhiker's thumb, and attached or unattached earlobes. In my family, everybody I tested had very similar results. The only difference was my brother Kevin has no widow's peak whereas everybody else does. This surprised me a little because I don't look similar to my sister or my brother but it turns out we share several traits. The only genotype I was able to confirm 100% was my genotype for hitchhiker's thumb which is homozygous recessive. Since hitchhiker's thumb is a recessive trait, in order for my phenotype to be a hitchhiker's thumb my genotype must be homozygous recessive. I was able to determine that both of my parents' genotype for the widow's peak is heterozygous since there is a mix of widow's peaks and no widow's peaks amongst my siblings and me. Since I was unable to analyze my grandparents and therefore unsure of my parents' other genotypes, I was unable to conclude my genotype for all of the other traits because the other traits I have that we looked at are all dominant so they could be homozygous dominant or heterozygous. While I was researching which traits were dominant, I learned that many of the more obscure genetic traits are actually dominant. One example of this is dwarfism. The word recessive sounds like it should be associated with less common traits, but this often is not true. Now please sit back, relax, and watch me take a whirl at making a (championship) pedigree for my family.



Learn how to draw cartoons, comics, and anime at Sketchfu!

Jean-etics and the Lavv (Genetics and the Law)

In recent years, due to a dramatic advances in genetics research, many legal and bioethical issues have arisen about how gene research can and cannot be used. Although many of these issues have arisen, I am going to turn my microscope on to the 40x lens and focus in on legislation related to stem cell research and legislation related to discrimination based upon genetic make up, just two bioethical issues on the slide of genetics and the law. First I will delve in to the mysterious concept of discrimination based upon the genes that one is born with.

This concept, as implausible as it may seem, is actually fairly possible. This is well illustrated in a movie called GATTACA (For some unknown reason when you turn on captions that transcribe the audio the name changes to CUAAUGU), where job interviews consist of having one’s DNA read. Legislation been around this has been discussed for around 15 years, but a bill was only recently passed by former President George W. Bush in 2008. Legislation regarding this scenario is pretty straightforward; discrimination against any person because of their genetic makeup is not permitted in the United States. This pertains particularly to hiring companies and insurance companies. Companies are forbidden from using genetic tendencies towards disease as factors when hiring or promoting. Also, insurance companies cannot mandate genetic tests or use similar data in deciding whether to insure a certain person This is instrumental because many people refused to get genetically tested even when it opens up many treatment options due to fear of unemployment or lack of insurance. It seems like a stretched comparison, but if discrimination was allowed to reach the point of genetics, it would share qualities with racial discrimination of the 1960s. In the 1960s, black people did not register to vote for fear of the registrar contacting the attempted registrants employer and having the attempted registrant fired. In that scenario, the discriminated had to abstain from voting and if a situation analogous to life in GATTACA arose, people would steer clear of getting genetically tested. Refusing to get genetically tested could lead to people not learning about hereditary or other diseases as early as they should, which in turn severely limits treatment options. This so called Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act is instrumental in preventing our world from becoming a utopian world full of unfairness such as the worlds in sci-fi movies like GATTACA and Minority Report.

 Here is a sketchfu I put together that would be very useful for a PSA if this bill hadn't already been passed or it could be useful if our world goes all GATTACA on us.

Learn how to draw cartoons, comics, and anime at Sketchfu!

Now let’s have a rhetorical discussion (you can comment if you must) about stem cell research and legislation related to it, particularly Executive Order 13505 that was issued by President Barack Obama in March of 2009. Stem cell research, ever since its discovery, has led to many advances in science. If you would like to learn more about stem cells as a whole, you can check out my fellow classmates blog post about it here: http://sarasbioblog.blogspot.com/2011/03/stem-cell-research.html. Essentially, this order allows stem cell research, as long as it is carried out responsibly and used only for advances in medical research that are legal. This order also provides guidelines and budget for the NIH to research stem cells. In addition, this order revokes a previous presidential order that put restrictions on stem cell research. This EO was issued because stem cell research is quickly advancing and has the potential to help many medical treatment processes and open many doors.

Sources: 

http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/05/21/us-genetics-bush-idUSN2143439320080521

http://stemcells.nih.gov/policy/2009guidelines.htm

 I DARE YOU CLICK THIS AND THIS

Laron Syndrome - emordnyS noraL - Reflection - noitcelfeR

The article about the Ecuadorians who have have Laron syndrome is extremely interesting. What is particularly intriguing is the potential that this knowledge has to extend life and put off cancer and diabetes. Studies done in these people with Laron syndrome revealed that they have low levels of IGF1 and experiments done on worms and mice showed that the low levels of this growth factor inhibit cancer and diabetes. This notion is very interesting. If scientists learned how to manipulate this gene in a certain way, they theoretically might be able to make it less abundant in people with high cancer risks and prevent cancer. However, if manipulation of IGF1 was doable, some people could choose to use it to gain increased growth by increasing the levels. However, using the manipulation of IGF1 as an artificial growth hormone would be very risky, similar to how HGH and steroids are dangerous to the body in some ways. People who have an over abundance of IGF1 have been shown to be very tall, they also are at a high risk for diseases such as cancer. According to http://www.buzzle.com/articles/human-growth-hormone-hgh-side-effects.html, a side effect of HGH is acromegaly, the converse of Ladron syndorme which was talked about in the original article. This study could also further prove the dangers of steroids. Also, it will be interesting to see if it can be found out if it would be beneficial if IGF1 was reduced in all humans. IT obviously stunts growth, but would it be worth it if it lowers cancer risk significantly. Also, I wonder what a decrease in IGF1 would do to a person who is already finished growing. For somebody like this, would it be win/win situation? All in all, this find is really interesting and could lead to breakthrough discoveries in the science of cancer.

Thahy-roid Kan-ser [ Thyroid Cancer ]

Please enjoy my beautifully composed analysis of thyroid cancer. If I were a teacher, I would make a new grade just for this paper and give it an A++, but that's just me. In lieu of pictures throughout the paper, you can view my also A++ worthy powerpoint that is fairly incoherent when I am not there talking and filling in the blanks, but knock yourself out.

Matt Pendo
2-13-11

Thyroid Cancer

Thyroid Cancer is cancer that occurs in the thyroid gland. Cancer of the thyroid was discovered slightly before the end of 19th century by Dr. William Stewart Halsted, an American surgeon who was also a cocaine and morphine addict. Thyroid cancers take up about 1% of all diagnosed cancers and the survival rates are generally very high, particularly if the cancer has not metastasized. (University of Texas Medical Branch) Thyroid cancer is fairly rare, and one out of every 111 people will be diagnosed with thyroid cancer over the course of their life. (National Cancer Institute) This is .9%, an extremely low number that shows just how uncommon thyroid cancer is. Although it is uncommon, every year around 25,000 women and 8,000 men learn that they have thyroid cancer. (NCI)

The thyroid gland is a butterfly shaped hormonal gland located just below the Adam’s apple that is wrapped around the windpipe and makes and stores hormones. These hormones regulate heart rate, metabolism, blood pressure, and growth. The thyroid uses iodine to make hormones that every cell in the body relies on. In particular, the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodinetyronine (T3), play a large role in the regulation of metabolism and are extremely important. Hormonal production of the thyroid is controlled by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in feedback mechanism similar to the renal feedback mechanism. When levels of T3 and T4 become too low, the pituitary gland in the brain signals for TSH to be secreted and regulate the hormone levels. Conversely, if hormone levels are too high the pituitary gland secretes less TSH until the hormonal level is normal. Another hormone made by the thyroid is calcitonin. Calcitonin is made by the C cells of the thyroid rather than the follicular cells that make T3 and T4 and helps bone cells add calcium to the bone. Thyroid cancer affects the normal production of these hormones and can cause many problems if not treated.

There are four main types of thyroid cancer, and they are all carcinomas, meaning they all occur in tissue cells. The most common type of thyroid cancer is papillary carcinoma, which makes up around 80% of all thyroid cancer cases. This cancer occurs in the follicular cells and is usually very treatable if found before metastasis. The second most common form of thyroid cancer is follicular carcinoma, which also occurs in the follicular cells. This type of thyroid cancer accounts for about 15% of thyroid cancer cases and is also treatable if found early. The third most common variety of thyroid cancer is Medullary carcinoma, which occurs in the C cells of the thyroid and affects the levels of calcitonin. This variety makes up about 3% of all thyroid cancer diagnoses and is also treatable when found before it has metastasized. The final form of thyroid cancer and the most uncommon is anaplastic carcinoma. This form of thyroid cancer occurs in the follicular cells of the thyroid and only accounts for about 2% of all thyroid cancer cases. Although this is the most rare, it is the most deadly. Anaplastic carcinoma grows rapidly and is extremely difficult to control. All of these cancers form growths on the thyroid gland that are called nodules. These nodules are basically tumors on the thyroid, but only 10% of thyroid nodules are malignant.

Although thyroid cancer is a fairly uncommon form of cancer, there are several risk factors that can increase one’s chances of obtaining thyroid cancer. One of these risk factors is radiation, either from high dose x-rays or radioactive fallout. Dental x-rays from the first half of the 20th century along with association with nuclear weapons or energy puts one at an increased risk of getting thyroid cancer. Family history also plays a role in thyroid cancer. Growths on the colon or goiters can increase somebody’s chances of getting papillary carcinoma. Also, Medullary carcinoma can be passed down genetically. Specifically, a mutation in the RET gene can be passed down. Almost everyone who was born with this mutation gets Medullary carcinoma. In addition, females are three times more likely to get thyroid cancer than males. Studies are also being done to see if iodine levels are associated with thyroid cancer. Preliminary research hints that low iodine levels can cause follicular carcinoma and that high levels of iodine can cause papillary carcinoma. Finally, there is some research that suggests increased consumption of shellfish or seafood could be associated with thyroid cancer risk.

Cancers are caused by mutations in the cell cycle, and scientists have been able to pinpoint some of the exact mutations that cause thyroid cancer. As I mentioned before, Medullary carcinoma can be caused by the heredity of a mutated RET gene. Papillary carcinoma is usually caused by one of three genetic mutations. The mutation usually occurs in the RET gene, the BRAF gene, or the RAS gene. When radiation is not an associated factor, the mutation usually happens to the BRAF gene. The BRAF gene fuses with part of the AKAP9 gene and the combined gene stimulates normal cells to turn in to cancerous cells. In anaplastic carcinoma, the RhoB tumor suppressor gene stops functioning and a cancerous growth is the result. When radiation is associated, the mutation usually occurs in the RET gene. Although these cancers happen when the cell cycle functions improperly, there are several ways to treat thyroid cancers.

There are several treatment options for one who has thyroid cancer. One of the major treatment options is surgery. Two of the most common surgical procedures are a thyroidectomy or a lobectomy. In a thyroidectomy, the whole thyroid gland is removed. This removes the nodule, but without a thyroid pills will have to be taken for the rest of one’s life in order to regulate hormone levels. A lobectomy is a procedure sometimes used on patients with follicular or papillary thyroid cancer and only part of the thyroid is removed. Another treatment option is thyroid hormone treatment. These are usually pills that regulate blood pressure, heart rate, weight, and body temperature and are often prescribed after thyroid surgery. Another option is treatment with radioactive iodine. This is used on some patients with papillary or follicular thyroid cancer and consists of the patient consuming radioactive iodine which kills the thyroid cells, both cancerous and non cancerous. Yet another option is external radiation therapy. This is when radiation from outside of the body is concentrated at the affected area and is only used when surgery and radioactive iodine treatment cannot be used. For anaplastic thyroid cancer, the deadliest, chemotherapy is often used. In chemotherapy, the patient consumes radioactive medicine that kills cancerous cells. Another treatment for anaplastic thyroid cancer is a drug called RS5444. This drug activates the RhoB tumor suppressor that is dysfunctional in anaplastic thyroid cancer cells. Drugs that activate deactivated genes are rare, but this drug does exactly that. Although thyroid cancer is rare, there are many treatment options and survival rates are high.

When the cell cycle does not function correctly in the thyroid, cancerous nodules are sometimes the result. However, these cancerous nodules are often treatable. From treatments such as radioactive iodine therapy to RS5444, thyroid cancer has one of the highest survival rates. Even though it has a high survival rate, it is already an uncommon cancer. Ever since its discovery in the late 19th century, research has allowed most people with thyroid cancer to live normal lives after diagnosis.

Sources:
http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=5778
http://www.endocrineweb.com/conditions/thyroid/how-your-thyroid-works
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/thyroid
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/thyroid/page9
http://www.medindia.net/news/view_news_main.asp?x=3200
http://www.medindia.net/patients/patientinfo/thyroid-cancer-symptoms-risk.htm
http://www.medindia.net/news/New-Drug-To-Turn-On-Tumor-Supressor-Gene-In-Thyroid-Cancer-Cells-46631-1.htm
http://www.utmb.edu/otoref/grnds/thyroid-ca-021204/thyroid-ca-021204.htm
http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/thyro.html




Check out my powerpoint that won't make sense unless you read the paper.

Thyroid cancer ppt

View more presentations from pendom11.

Foh-tuh-sin-thuh-sis [Photosynthesis]

This past week, we have begun to explore Photosynthesis, the process that plants use to make energy so that they can live long and prosper. Photosynthesis is well known to be the energy generator that it is, but we have been learning the specifics of how it makes energy. First off, photosynthesis is comprised of two main sections. There are the light reactions, or the light dependent reactions, and there are the dark reactions, or the light independent reactions. We also must recognize where photosynthesis is taking place. If you recall the anatomy of a plant cell, you will remember that plants have these things called chloroplasts which are located inside the cell. Now if we zoom in to the chloroplast, we will find some stacks of objects that look like pancakes. These are thylakoids, and when several are stacked together they form a granum. These grana are located inside the stroma, which is effectively the cytosol of the chloroplast. The first part of photosynthesis, or the light dependent reactions, occur inside the membrane of a thylakoid. Inside that membrane, there are sets of two photosystems, PSI and PSII as well as many ATP synthase. In the photosystems, there are pigments that are waiting to be excited by some force of energy. This energy is supplied by photons from some light source. As the photon first hits PSII, it excites a pigment that then releases an electron. This electron moves to the top of PSII and then begins its descent whil it moves across the membrane. As it is moving down, it releases energy that is used in active transport to pump protons across the membrane into the thylakoid lumen, which is the area inside of the thylakoid. At the end of this electrons journey, it will reach PSI, but first we need to know why. While this electron was making its journey through the fire and flames and voer the mountains and through the hills, photons hit PSI and excited an electron from a pigment there. This electron went up, as the first one did, but instead of going down it is metaphorically adopted by an NADP+ molecule, form NADPH and will be used later in photosynthesis. Now we are left with a gaping void where an electron should be in PSI, and this is where the first electron we talked about comes in to play. This electron replaces the empty seat that the PSI electron left and will soon be adopted by an NADP+ molecule after some photons energize it. Now, you may recall the protons that I mentioned getting pumped across the membrane into the thylakoid lumen, and  now we see them come in to play. If you happened to listen to my cellular respiration rendition of "Baby" by Justin Bieber, then this part of photosyntehsis should slap you in the face with dejá vu. As you may recall, I sang the words, "Just take some protons, pump them across, make it acidic, for chemiosmosis, H+ ions through the ATP synthase." Well this essentially happens in this stage of photosynthesis. The H+ ions, or protons, that were pumped across are sent through the ATP synthase via chemiosmosis and generate a phosphate that can be metaphorically adopted by an ADP molecule and make ATP, which will be used to power later reactions in photosynthesis. Now only one part of this stage of photosynthesis is left, and we must answer the question, "Where did the electron that was used in PSII come from?" Well, you and your seven year old brother might know that plants must be watered, but now you will learn why. This electron is supplied through the oxidation of water. First I will explain this metaphorically, and then I will explain it scientifically. So let's say that the water molecule family is walking down the street. Mrs. Hydrogen, Mr. Hydrogen, and their child Oxygen. While they are taking a stroll in the park, big bad Thug Doctor PSII steps out of the bushes and kidnaps the baby Oxygen. Then Thug Doctor removes baby Oxygen's heart and has it placed in him surgically to stop suffering from heart failure. Check out my Sketch Fu about this metaphor.



Learn how to draw cartoons, comics, and anime at Sketchfu!




Now, done with the forced metaphor, we will look at it scientifically. A water molecule approaches the ATP synthase and oxidized. An electron is taken from the water molecule and replaces the lack of one in PSII. The H+ ions from the water molecule are involved in chemiosmosis and oxygen is released into the world as waste. Now my metaphor makes perfect sense, right? So that sums up the light dependent reactions of photsynthesis, but let's take some time to review the inputs and outputs of these reactions. The inputs needed are water and photons, and the outputs are oxygen, NADPH, and ATP. The oxygen is released as waste, and the NADPH and the ATP will be used in the light independent reactions.

So now you are probably asking, "When are you going to tell me about the light independent reactions?" So let's begin. The light independent reactions occur in the stroma as opposed to the lumen, and these reactions do not directly require light. The name of this stage is the Calvin Cycle, and it requires the inputs ATP, NADPH, and CO2. Let's say that 3CO2 enter the cycle (I will explain the numbering later) and immediately the carbons are separated from the oxygens and the oxygens are released. The three carbons, thanks to an enzyme called RuBiSco, these 3 carbons bond with three preexisting 5 carbon molecules and form three 6 carbon molecules. However, these 6 carbon molecules are extremely unstable and almost as sooon as they are formed they are split into two 3 carbon molecules each. So now we have six 3 carbon molecules. These molecules are then rearranged as ATP and NADPH phosphorylize them until they become PGAL or G3P, a three carbon molecule that can be used to make glucose. However, out of the six PGAL that we have five must continue moving along the cycle. These five are phosphorylized by ATP once more and rearranged until they form the original 5 carbon compound that we joined with in the first place. But what happened to the one PGAL we kept? Well, that PGAL can be used to make glucose or other sugars and, if it becomes glucose, it could be used in cellular respiration. Now here is the catch. While I said that 3 go through in one cycle, only one carbon can enter at a time. However, the carbons kind of go separately almost simultaneously, and this allows them to bond and make one whole PGAL. After the Calvin Cycle, (for 3 carbons) your outputs are 9ADP, 6NADP+, and 1PGAL.

 Image from: http://biomassauthority.com/archives/why-is-biomass-better-than-fossil-fuels.html